The Story of Sister Mary Kenneth Keller, the First Woman to Earn a Doctorate in Computer Science in the United States

Sister Mary Kenneth Keller (born Evelyn Marie Keller, December 17, 1913 – January 10, 1985) was a pioneering American Catholic nun, educator, and computer scientist. She became the first woman in the United States to earn a Ph.D. in computer science, awarded in 1965 by the University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Evelyn Marie Keller was born in Cleveland, Ohio, to John Adam Keller and Catherine Josephine (née Sullivan). In 1932, at age 18, she entered the Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary (B.V.M.), a Roman Catholic order. She professed her vows in 1940, taking the religious name Sister Mary Kenneth. Her early education focused on the sciences. She earned a Bachelor of Science in Mathematics from DePaul University in Chicago in 1943 and a Master of Science in Mathematics and Physics from the same institution in 1953.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Keller pursued advanced studies in computing at several institutions, including Purdue University, the University of Michigan, and Dartmouth College. At Dartmouth, she participated in a 1961 summer program for high school teachers and collaborated with mathematicians John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz. She contributed to the development of BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), one of the earliest and most accessible high-level programming languages designed to make computing available to a broader audience, including non-specialists and students.

She later enrolled in the doctoral program at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Her dissertation, titled “Inductive Inference on Computer Generated Patterns” (supervised by Professor Preston Hammer), involved constructing algorithms for analytic differentiation of algebraic expressions, implemented in CDC FORTRAN 63.

In 1965, at age 51, she received her Ph.D. She and Irving C. Tang were the first two recipients of computer science doctorates in the U.S. (Keller’s Ph.D. and Tang’s D.Sc. were awarded the same day; another man received his slightly earlier that day at a different institution). Keller was the first woman to achieve this milestone.

After graduation, Sister Mary Kenneth returned to her order’s Clarke College (now Clarke University) in Dubuque, Iowa—a Catholic women’s college. She founded its computer science department in 1965, one of the first at a small college in the U.S., and directed it for about 20 years.

She was a strong advocate for expanding access to computers in education, believing they could democratize learning and empower women and others traditionally excluded from technical fields. The National Science Foundation supported her work with a $25,000 grant for instructional equipment. She taught many students, including mothers who sometimes brought children to class, and authored or co-authored books on computer science, including texts on BASIC.

Sister Keller died in Dubuque, Iowa, on January 10, 1985, at age 71. She exemplified how faith, education, and innovation could intersect. In an era when women faced significant barriers in STEM, she broke new ground while remaining committed to her religious vocation and the mission of making technology accessible for teaching and learning.

Her story highlights early efforts to broaden participation in computing, from developing user-friendly languages like BASIC to building academic programs at smaller institutions. Today, she is remembered as a trailblazer who helped pave the way for greater diversity in computer science.

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The First American Woman in Space: 34 Amazing Photos of a Young Sally Ride From Between the Late 1970s and 1980s

Dr. Sally Ride (May 26, 1951 – July 23, 2012) was an American physicist, trailblazing astronaut, and educator who made history on June 18, 1983, as the first American woman to fly in space. At 32 years old, she was also the youngest American astronaut to travel to space at that time. While she was the first American woman to break this barrier, she was preceded globally by Soviet cosmonauts Valentina Tereshkova (1963) and Svetlana Savitskaya (1982).

Born in Los Angeles, Ride was an exceptionally gifted athlete and a nationally ranked junior tennis player. She briefly considered a professional tennis career but ultimately chose to pursue her passion for science. She attended Stanford University, where she earned a unique double bachelor's degree in physics and English literature, followed by a master's degree and a Ph.D. in astrophysics (1978), specializing in laser physics and how X-rays interact with interstellar mediums.

In 1977, Ride saw an ad in the Stanford student newspaper announcing that NASA was recruiting scientists and “mission specialists” for its new Space Shuttle program, and for the first time, opening the doors to women. She beat out more than 8,000 applicants to become one of six women selected for NASA’s historic Class of '78.

On June 18, 1983, she launched aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger. As a mission specialist and flight engineer, she helped deploy communications satellites and became the first person to use the shuttle’s robotic arm to retrieve a satellite in orbit. She returned to space in 1984, again aboard Challenger, logging a career total of more than 343 hours in space.

Ride earned immense respect for her analytical mind. She holds the unique distinction of being the only person appointed to serve on both presidential investigation boards for NASA’s space shuttle disasters: the Challenger explosion in 1986 and the Columbia crash in 2003.

Ride retired from NASA in 1987 and returned to academia, becoming a professor of physics at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) and director of the California Space Science Institute.

Driven by a passion to narrow the gender gap in science, she co-founded Sally Ride Science in 2001, an organization dedicated to creating narrow-interest STEM programs, books, and materials for elementary and middle school students, specifically focusing on keeping young girls engaged in math and science.

Following her death from pancreatic cancer in 2012 at age 61, her obituary revealed she had been in a loving 27-year relationship with her partner, Tam O’Shaughnessy. This posthumously made Ride the first known LGBTQ+ astronaut in history.

In 2013, President Barack Obama posthumously awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civilian honor.

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People and Their Cameras: 40 Vintage Snaps From a Bygone Era

There’s something uniquely charming about seeing people from the past proudly posing with their cameras. This collection of vintage photographs captures men and women of all ages holding their beloved cameras: from large format box cameras and folding Kodaks to sleek Leica rangefinders and twin-lens reflexes.

These images offer a fascinating glimpse into the golden age of analog photography, when cameras were not just tools, but treasured possessions and symbols of creativity. Whether serious amateurs, traveling enthusiasts, or proud owners showing off their newest gear, these portraits beautifully preserve the joy, pride, and passion people once felt for the art of photography in a pre-digital world.

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45 Captivating Black & White Photos of the 1939 New York World’s Fair

The 1939 New York World’s Fair was one of the most ambitious and visionary events of the 20th century. Held in Flushing Meadows, Queens, it promised “The World of Tomorrow” — a dazzling vision of the future filled with groundbreaking technology, modernist architecture, and optimism just before the outbreak of World War II.

These captivating black and white photographs offer a powerful and nostalgic journey through this extraordinary event, capturing the iconic Trylon and Perisphere, futuristic pavilions, sleek Art Deco design, and the wonder on the faces of visitors experiencing the fair’s wonders for the first time.

"Lady Godivas" wait for their entrance during the Cavalcade of Centaurs show at the 1939 New York World's Fair

"New York belles" wave good-bye to departing troops at the outbreak of the "War Between the States" scene at the 1939 New York World's Fair

"Satan," a 7-year-old Sumatra tiger, leaps through a flaming hoop at the 1939 New York World's Fair

1939 USSR Pavilion at the 1939 New York World's Fair

A "Typical American Family" enjoying the 1939 New York World's Fair, with the Trylon and Perisphere in the background

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iPhone Girl: The Photos That Brought the Young Worker to Fame in 2008

In August 2008, shortly after the launch of the iPhone 3G, a British man named Mark Mitchell (username markm49uk on MacRumors) from Kingston-upon-Hull, UK, unboxed his brand-new iPhone. To his surprise, it wasn’t completely factory-fresh: it contained three photos of a young Chinese woman on the assembly line.

The images showed a smiling, round-faced girl in her late teens or early 20s, wearing a pink-and-white striped uniform, a matching cap, and white gloves with yellow fingertips. In the photos, she posed cheerfully next to a packaged iPhone, flashing a “V” sign and giving a playful, slightly tilted-head smile directly at the camera. One photo even appeared as the wallpaper or home screen image when he first connected the phone to iTunes.

The phone had been assembled at the massive Foxconn factory in Shenzhen, China (the primary manufacturer for Apple’s iPhones at the time). The photos were almost certainly taken during a camera test on the production line. A worker (or quality inspector) likely used the iPhone’s camera to check functionality, snapped a few fun shots with a colleague, and then forgot to delete them before the device was packaged and shipped worldwide.

Mark posted the photos on the popular Apple forum MacRumors. They quickly spread across the internet. People found her cute and charming, dubbing her the “iPhone Girl.” The story went viral, appearing in major outlets like NBC News, Wired, Gizmodo, TIME (which named her one of the top 10 everything of 2008), and Chinese media.

The internet reaction was overwhelmingly positive and playful. Forum users called her “very cute,” joked about paying extra for an iPhone that came with her photo (or her email), and speculated about her life on the factory line. Some worried she might get in trouble, or even fired, for the “mistake.”

Foxconn confirmed she was a real employee at their Shenzhen plant and reassured the public that “she is definitely not fired.” The photos were described as accidental test shots, and the company said it was investigating but her job was safe. Her identity was kept private by the company.

She briefly became an internet sensation and a symbol of the human side of global manufacturing, putting a friendly, human face on the massive factories that produced millions of iPhones.

The “iPhone Girl” enjoyed her 15 minutes of fame in late August 2008 but largely faded from public view. Foxconn protected her privacy, and she did not give interviews or seek further attention. One later report mentioned she felt a bit scared or overwhelmed by the sudden global spotlight. No confirmed real name or follow-up story emerged publicly, and she appears to have returned to a normal life away from the cameras.

The incident remains a charming early internet viral moment from the era when the iPhone was still new and exciting. It humanized the complex supply chain behind Apple’s products and showed how a simple, forgotten photo could connect people across continents. To this day, it’s remembered fondly as one of the lighter, more wholesome tech stories of 2008, before the iPhone era fully dominated global culture.

40 Amazing Vintage Photos of People and Television From the Mid-20th Century

In the mid-20th century, television underwent a dramatic transformation from a luxury novelty to the centerpiece of the modern home.

By the 1950s, the “Golden Age of Television” had begun, fundamentally altering family dynamics as living rooms were rearranged to focus on the flickering screen rather than the fireplace. It became a powerful social glue; families gathered nightly to watch iconic variety shows, sitcoms, and news broadcasts, creating a shared national culture.

This era also saw TV become a primary source of information and advertising, shaping public opinion and consumer habits like never before. Ultimately, television in this period didn’t just provide entertainment, it redefined how people perceived the world and connected with one another.

These amazing vintage photos from this period capture a unique moment of transition, documenting a society in the midst of a technological love affair that would forever redefine how we connect, learn, and entertain ourselves.

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Thomas Midgley Jr., the Most Harmful Inventor in History

Thomas Midgley Jr., born in 1889 in Dayton, Ohio, was an inventive American chemical engineer whose work profoundly shaped the 20th century, though in ways that would later prove devastating. In his early career, he tackled the problem of engine knocking, experimenting with various additives. After years of research, he developed tetraethyl lead in 1921, marketed by General Motors as “ethyl” gasoline. The additive greatly improved engine performance and was rapidly adopted worldwide, but it also released massive quantities of toxic lead into the environment. This led to widespread ecological contamination and chronic human exposure, consequences that were ignored or downplayed during Midgley’s lifetime, even as he himself suffered lead poisoning.

Seeking to move on from the controversy surrounding leaded gasoline, Midgley turned his attention to refrigeration technology, which at the time relied on hazardous substances like ammonia and sulfur dioxide. In 1928, he co-developed chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), introducing Freon as a seemingly perfect solution: safe, stable, and non-flammable. For decades, CFCs became standard in cooling systems and aerosols.

It wasn’t until the 1970s that scientists discovered their destructive impact on the ozone layer, creating a global environmental crisis. Although CFCs were phased out under the 1987 Montreal Protocol, the atmospheric damage they caused continues to this day, cementing Midgley’s reputation as a cautionary figure in technological innovation.

Portrait of Thomas Midgley, Jr., ca. 1940s.

Midgley’s life ended with a grim irony. After contracting polio at the age of 51, he became partially paralyzed and designed an elaborate system of pulleys and ropes to help lift himself from bed. In 1944, he was accidentally strangled by this very device, dying at the age of 55.

Holding 171 patents and celebrated in his time for ingenuity, Midgley is now remembered as a man whose well-intentioned creations inadvertently caused some of the most far-reaching environmental harms in history.

The “Death Diary” of Renowned Herpetologist Karl P. Schmidt in 1957

In 1957, renowned herpetologist Karl P. Schmidt documented his own death in a meticulous scientific account that newspapers later dubbed his “death diary.” After being bitten by a juvenile boomslang (Dispholidus typus), he refused medical treatment, choosing instead to record the clinical progression of the venom's effects until he lost consciousness.

On September 25, 1957, while identifying a 30-inch snake at the Chicago Natural History Museum (now the Field Museum), the snake bit Schmidt on the fleshy part of his left thumb. Schmidt wrongly believed a juvenile, rear-fanged snake could not deliver a lethal dose to a human. When colleagues urged him to seek help, he reportedly replied that medical intervention would “interfere with the symptoms” he was observing.

“I took it from Dr. Robert Inger without thinking of any precaution, and it promptly bit me on the fleshy lateral aspect of the first joint of the left thumb,” Schmidt wrote in his journal. 

Over the next day, he documented a terrifying sequence of symptoms: nausea, chills, gum bleeding, fever, and urination of blood. He maintained his routine, eating meals and taking the train home while recording every detail with meticulous precision. Even his breakfast the following morning was logged, complete with a note about continued bleeding from his mouth and nose, which he understated as “not excessive”—a chilling understatement, as it would be the last word he ever wrote.

September 25, afternoon: He noted the bite, described the snake, and recorded early mild symptoms before taking the train home.

September 26, 6:30 AM: He ate cereal, poached eggs on toast, applesauce, and coffee for breakfast, and noted continuous bleeding from the mouth and nose, though “not excessively.” “Excessively” was the last word Schmidt wrote.

After lunch, he vomited, called his wife, and soon became unresponsive. Despite attempts to revive him, Schmidt was pronounced dead at 3 PM. Schmidt was advised to seek medical help just hours before he died, but refused, saying “No, that would upset the symptoms.”

Boomslang venom causes disseminated intravascular coagulation, a condition in which so many small clots form in the blood that the victim loses the ability to clot further and bleeds to death. Schmidt’s autopsy revealed extensive internal bleeding. When he was brought into the hospital, he was bleeding from his eyes, lungs, kidneys, heart, and brain.

Boomslang antivenom is monovalent, it only works for boomslangs, and it certainly was not available in Chicago in the 1950s. However, in 2017, venom researchers tested a modern antivenom similar to what would have been available to Schmidt at the time and found it did a decent job neutralizing several deadly proteins in the boomslang venom. They noted that reducing the activity of a venom by even 25 percent can mean the difference between life and death.

Schmidt’s death raised awareness of the potential toxicity of rear-fanged colubrid snakes to the scientific community, resulting in a number of important studies in the 1960s and 1970s. His meticulous final diary remains one of the most extraordinary first-person scientific documents ever recorded — a scientist, true to his calling, observing nature even as it killed him.

Soviet Cosmonauts Georgy Beregovoy and Pavel Popovich Present a Hunting Rifle as a Gift to Neil Armstrong, 1970

On June 1, 1970, Soviet cosmonauts Georgy Beregovoy and Pavel Popovich presented Neil Armstrong with an engraved hunting weapon during his historic goodwill visit to the Soviet Union. While often described in viral historical posts as a “hunting rifle,” it was technically an engraved double-barrel shotgun crafted by noted gunsmiths in Tula.

Armstrong was in the USSR for a 10-day tour following his Apollo 11 mission. He visited the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City on June 1, where he was hosted by Valentina Tereshkova.

During an evening reception, Beregovoy and Popovich presented the 12-gauge, side-by-side shotgun. Beregovoy humorously noted it was a tool for “hunting on Earth, not on the Moon.” The stock was inscribed with Armstrong’s name in Cyrillic script. Despite strict regulations on gifts from foreign governments, the U.S. government permitted Armstrong to keep the firearm.

Though the two nations remained fierce rivals in space technology, their astronauts often shared deep professional admiration. The exchange foreshadowed later cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union, culminating in the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project of 1975, when astronauts and cosmonauts worked together in orbit for the first time.

Neil Armstrong’s 1970 visit to the USSR included a trip to Leningrad and the Baikonur Cosmodrome, where he met Soviet engineers and viewed the spacecraft that had carried Gagarin into orbit in 1961. The exchange was a rare moment of camaraderie during the Cold War. In return, Armstrong presented Soviet Premier Aleksey Kosygin with Moon rock fragments and a Soviet flag that had flown on Apollo 11. The shotgun remained in Armstrong’s private collection until it was auctioned by Heritage Auctions in 2019.

That Time Matthew Perry and Jennifer Aniston Did an Advert for Windows 95

In 1995, at the peak of their Friends fame, Matthew Perry and Jennifer Aniston starred in a 60-minute instructional video titled the Microsoft Windows 95 Video Guide. Marketed as the “world’s first cyber sitcom,” the production was released on VHS to teach users the basics of the new operating system.

The actors play themselves visiting Bill Gates' office to audition for a role in a Microsoft video guide. They are guided through the "top 25 features" of Windows 95, including the Start button, right-clicking, multitasking, and the Recycle Bin.

Along the way, they interact with a cast of eccentric characters, such as a “martial arts guru” and “Joystick Johnny,” who explain technical concepts like Plug and Play. The video features iconic era-specific moments, such as Aniston calling copy-pasting “trippy” and Perry learning how to send an email to a friend in a grunge band.

The tape was divided into three sections: the “cyber sitcom,” a step-by-step technical review, and a section answering the 20 most frequently asked questions.

It’s a fascinating piece of tech-marketing history, especially considering Windows 95 was the version that truly moved PCs into the mainstream.

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Axl Rose Showing Off His New Cordless Phone at the Sunset Grill in Hollywood, 1988

These photographs of a young Axl Rose, captured by the renowned rock photographer Mark Weiss in 1988 at the Sunset Grill in Hollywood, where he seemingly paused for a quick portrait and maybe grabbed a burger after arriving with his then-girlfriend, Erin Everly.

According to Weiss, Guns N’ Roses were off-tour that spring. They arranged a shoot at Sunset Grill—everyone in the band showed up except Axl. The next day, he arrived with Erin Everly, had a quick meal, posed for around 15 minutes, and even showed off a mobile phone, marking Weiss’s first time using one.

“Every time I went to L.A., I would see who is around and what’s going on,” Weiss said. “And I reached out to [Guns N’ Roses] publicist Bryn Bridenthal. I said, ‘Let’s not make this a big photo shoot. They don’t like that. Why don’t we just meet at the Sunset Grill. I’ll buy them some lunch and we’ll just take some photos.’”

“Axl didn’t show up that day, so I shot him the next day by himself. We took some photos in front of the Sunset Grill sign. Just some portraits. And then at the end, he starts making a phone call and he’s like, ‘Mark, check out my phone. I’d never used one of them before.’ ... I don’t think there’s many pictures of him with a beard. They were in between tours or records. It was just very natural. It wasn’t posy.”

Mark Weiss, often referred to as “Weissguy,” is a legendary American rock photographer who rose to prominence in the 1980s. His images defined the look of that era’s heavy metal and glam rock scene, capturing icons like Ozzy Osbourne, Bon Jovi, Metallica, and Guns N’ Roses.

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Technician Floating Up and Down to Inspect Echo II, a NASA Satellite, 1963

A technician conducting a manual inspection of the Echo II communications satellite during a test inflation in 1963. The massive, highly reflective Mylar balloon, which served as a passive communications relay by reflecting radio signals back to Earth, was inflated inside a hangar at Lakehurst, New Jersey. To check for leaks and flaws across the surface of the gigantic, 135-foot-diameter sphere, the technician used a small personal balloon tethered to the ground to float up and down alongside it. This unusual and striking method of inspection resulted in the dramatic photo you see.

The Echo satellite program was NASA’s groundbreaking experiment that pioneered the use of space for communications by using large, passive reflective balloons.

The Echo satellites were essentially enormous, aluminized Mylar balloons that did not carry electronic instruments for receiving or retransmitting signals. Instead, ground stations on Earth beamed microwave signals at the satellite, which simply bounced the signals off its highly reflective surface to other ground stations across long distances.

The primary goal was to test the feasibility of satellite communications and other new space technologies. Experiments conducted during the program helped measure atmospheric drag, evaluate temperature control in orbit, and test satellite tracking methods.

Echo 1, launched on August 12, 1960, was 100 feet (30 meters) in diameter. It successfully relayed the first transcontinental voice circuit, including a prerecorded message from President Dwight Eisenhower. It remained in orbit for nearly eight years, visible to the naked eye as a fast-moving “star.”

Echo 2, launched in 1964, was larger at 135 feet (41 meters) in diameter and had a more rigid design to maintain its shape better in orbit. It was used for scientific investigations and famously for the first space-based collaboration between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, reflecting a signal from England to Russia.

Although eventually superseded by more advanced active repeater satellites (which amplify signals), the Echo program provided the technological foundation for modern satellite communications. The distinctive horn antenna at Bell Labs used for the project later played a pivotal role in the Nobel Prize-winning discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, a key piece of evidence for the Big Bang theory.

Imagine Being the Parents of the First Man to Walk on the Moon as You Watch Him Stepping Onto the Lunar Surface, 1969

Imagine being the parents of Neil Armstrong, the first man to walk on the Moon, as you watch him, live on TV, stepping onto the lunar surface. The pictures here, published in Life magazine, August 1, 1969, are of Stephen and Viola Armstrong as their son, Neil, enters the history books.

On the day Neil Armstrong walked on the moon on July 20, 1969, his parents, Stephen and Viola Armstrong, experienced a mixture of quiet anxiety, immense pride, and a surreal loss of privacy as the world’s eyes descended on their home in Wapakoneta, Ohio.

While much of the world was in awe, Viola Armstrong later admitted to being “terrified” during the landing. She spent much of the day in prayer, concerned about the lunar module's fuel levels and the unknown risks of the moon’s surface. Stephen Armstrong was similarly stoic but visibly tense until the “Eagle has landed” announcement.

Because their home was swamped by the press and well-wishers, the Armstrongs watched the moonwalk on a television set in their garage. They were surrounded by neighbors, friends, and dozens of reporters with cameras and lights.

When Neil finally stepped onto the surface, Viola reportedly whispered, “That was perfect,” through tears of joy. When Neil said his famous line about “one small step,” his father, Stephen, was overheard expressing amazement, asking those around him if they could believe what they had just seen.

Despite the global fame, the Armstrongs tried to maintain a sense of normalcy. Stephen Armstrong was known to be very active in local civic associations. Even as his son was making history, he insisted on “staying grounded” and continued to participate in community events shortly after the mission.

Their hometown of Wapakoneta essentially turned into a massive viewing party. The local police had to help manage the crowds around the Armstrong house so the parents could watch their son in relative peace.

The 28 Installation Disks of Windows 95

The 28 installation disks of Windows 95, released in 1995, are a fascinating relic of early computing history, highlighting just how far technology has come in a few short decades. At the time, Windows 95 was a revolutionary operating system for Microsoft.

When Windows 95 was first released, installing the operating system required a staggering 28 floppy disks—a clear indicator of the pre-CD-ROM era. Each 3.5-inch disk held only 1.44 MB, so the complete OS totaled roughly 40 MB, which was enormous for the mid-1990s.

The installation process was painstakingly slow. Users had to swap disks dozens of times, carefully following on-screen prompts, and even a single damaged disk could halt the entire setup. Patience and precision were essential to successfully get the system up and running.

Eventually, most users switched to the CD-ROM version, which simplified installation dramatically. However, the floppy disk set remained crucial for older computers that lacked CD drives, representing both the challenges and the ingenuity of early PC software distribution.

In 1995, Sandra Bullock Made History by Becoming the First Person to Buy a Movie Ticket Online

Long before online ticket bookings were considered common, Sandra Bullock had helped make history with a single mouse click. And it wasn’t planned as a tech milestone. Instead, it was part of promoting her 31-year-old underrated thriller, The Net (1995), when Bullock took the initiative to be the very first person to use a computer to purchase the first-ever online film ticket.

Bullock used the MovieLink website (a joint venture of various studios including Disney and MGM) to complete the transaction. She bought two tickets for a screening of The Net at the Egyptian Theater in Hollywood for a total of $17.70.

The event was captured in an Entertainment Tonight segment, which showed her navigating a bulky 1990s computer and inputting credit card data. At the time, online commerce was experimental; the stunt was designed to highlight the film's themes of technology and the emerging influence of the internet.

While some sources suggest she may have purchased tickets for her other 1995 hit, While You Were Sleeping, as part of the test, the majority of records and the viral footage confirm the purchase was primarily intended to promote The Net.

Here’s What Computer Class Looked Like in 1972!

In 1972, computer classes often used mainframe computers and early minicomputers. Mainframes were large, powerful machines that required dedicated spaces, while minicomputers were smaller and more affordable, making them suitable for educational institutions.

Students in computer classes in 1972 typically learned programming languages like BASIC and FORTRAN. These languages were foundational in the early days of computing and provided the building blocks for software development.

 Students interacted with computers in 1972 through computer terminals. These terminals were equipped with cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitors and allowed students to input code and receive output from the mainframe computer, which was often located in a separate room.

Access to computers was limited, and debugging code was a challenging and time-consuming process. Additionally, the absence of modern tools and the need to work with physical punch cards or paper tape made programming more cumbersome compared to today’s standards.

Students relied on textbooks and printed manuals as their primary resources for learning about computers. There was no internet or search engines to access information, so knowledge acquisition was largely book-based.

The computer class experience of 1972 played a pivotal role in shaping the future of technology and education. It introduced students to the world of computing and programming, fostering a sense of innovation and curiosity that would fuel the digital revolution in the decades to come.

Computer education has evolved significantly since 1972. Advances in technology have led to more accessible and user-friendly interfaces, online resources, and a wider range of programming languages. Computer literacy has become a fundamental skill in today’s digital age.

When Frogs Saved the Milk: A Russian-Finnish Tradition Backed by Science

Long before refrigerators made life easier, rural communities in Russia and Finland faced a tricky problem, how to keep milk from spoiling. Their solution? Drop a live brown frog (Rana temporaria) into the milk jar.

This practice was common in the 19th and early 20th centuries and was a traditional, empirical method of food preservation passed down through generations. People observed that milk stayed fresh for a longer time when a frog was present, but they did not understand the underlying scientific reason.

Modern research, notably a 2012-2013 study led by Dr. Albert Lebedev at Moscow State University, investigated this folklore. Scientists discovered that the skin of the brown frog secretes potent antimicrobial peptides (natural antibiotic compounds) which inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi that cause milk to sour.

The study confirmed that these natural compounds, such as Brevinin 1Tb, were effective at fighting off harmful bacteria like Staphylococcus and Salmonella, essentially acting as nature’s preservative.

This unusual tradition, which seems bizarre by today’s standards, was an ingenious, albeit unwitting, application of natural biochemistry that helped people preserve a vital food source in the absence of technology.