Views of the Safety Net Used to Protect Workers During Construction of the Golden Gate Bridge in the 1930s

The Golden Gate Bridge was constructed over a little over four years, from January 5, 1933, to May 27, 1937. This iconic suspension bridge, which spans the Golden Gate Strait, was built during the Great Depression and became a symbol of hope and progress during that challenging time.

When building the Golden Gate Bridge, the lead structural engineer Joseph Strauss insisted on the installation of a safety net even though its $130,000 (equivalent to over $2.7 million today) cost was deemed exorbitant. The safety net was suspended beneath the bridge’s floor during the construction of the roadway. It was made of manila rope and extended 10 feet out from the trusses on each side, providing a wide buffer to catch any workers who fell.

This net saved the lives of 19 men, who later formed the “Halfway to Hell Club.” The net also boosted worker morale and increased productivity because the crew felt more secure while working at great heights.

The Golden Gate Bridge’s safety record was remarkably good for its time. The industry standard for a project of its size ($35 million) was one fatality for every million dollars spent, which would have predicted 35 deaths. However, only 11 workers died during the entire construction. Tragically, 10 of those deaths occurred in a single accident when a five-ton scaffolding platform collapsed and tore through the net.

The use of this safety net, along with other safety innovations like hard hats and mandatory safety lines, established a new precedent for worker protection in large-scale construction, forever changing the industry’s approach to safety.

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Amazing Covers of Science and Invention Magazine During the 1920s

Science and Invention was an American popular science and technology magazine founded by Hugo Gernsback in 1920. Originally launched as Electrical Experimenter in May 1913, the magazine was renamed Science and Invention and became one of the earliest periodicals to blend scientific curiosity with futuristic imagination.

The magazine featured articles on new inventions, do-it-yourself projects, and speculative ideas about technology’s role in the future. It was also known for its colorful, often visionary cover art that captured the excitement of progress and innovation.

Although it ceased publication in August 1931, Science and Invention left a lasting influence on science fiction and popular interest in technology. Here is a collection of amazing covers from Science and Invention magazine during the 1920s.

Science and Invention magazine cover, September 1920

Science and Invention magazine cover, January 1921

Science and Invention magazine cover, March 1921

Science and Invention magazine cover, October 1921

Science and Invention magazine cover, February 1922

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Here’s How George Lucas Made Luke Skywalker’s Landspeeder Floating in “Star Wars” (1977)

In Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope (1977), the production team had to make Luke Skywalker’s landspeeder look like it was hovering over the desert terrain of Tatooine. To achieve this illusion on a limited budget and without modern CGI, they mounted mirrors at an angle on the sides of the landspeeder to reflect the surrounding desert ground, which hid the vehicle’s wheels. And the reflection made it appear as if the speeder was floating. A great example of clever practical effects.

Designed by noted special effects artist John Stears and manufactured by Ogle Design, the landspeeder prop was built on a real vehicle chassis. Specifically, it was a three-wheeled car called a Bond Bug. This allowed it to be driven and controlled in the desert, but it also presented the main challenge: how to hide the wheels.

To conceal the wheels, the special effects team mounted angled mirrors on the sides of the car. These mirrors reflected the desert ground, creating the illusion that the vehicle was hovering. When a person or object was in the reflection, it would appear to be underneath the vehicle.

For some shots, the crew used specific camera angles to hide the wheels. For long-distance shots, they even smeared a small amount of Vaseline or gelatin on the camera lens to create a subtle blur or heat haze near the ground. This helped to mask any imperfections in the mirror effect and enhanced the sense of a futuristic, levitating vehicle. George Lucas, the creator of Star Wars, reportedly called this blur “The Force Spot.”

“We tried several ideas during filming, and none of them seemed to work,” said Lucas (regarding the landspeeder’s hovering effect). “We finally tried using a mirror, and that came close, but it didn’t work, either. So when we went out to Death Valley, we redid the mirror and made it sturdier and made it longer, raised the car a little bit higher, and found a lake bed that had topography that was easier to work with. Then we shot it again, but that didn’t work because not enough care was taken to make the mirror and to get the speeder going fast enough. Finally, Bob Dalva came back with a crew and made it work. But he only got one shot, and we needed three. So then we sent another cameraman to get the final two shots using the same method.”

“The Model Shop helped out with the full-sized (Land)speeder when it came to the U.S. for late pickup shots in early 1977. We constructed a mirrored plex skirt that blocked the view of the landspeeder’s three tires, the true source of its propulsion. The mirror reflected the deset landscape underneath, creating the illusion of anti-gravity. We shot these scenes near Lake Mirage, the locale close to where our sandcrawler explored.”

In the later "Special Edition" releases of the film, released in 1997, Lucas and his team at Industrial Light and Magic (ILM) used early digital effects to further clean up and refine the landspeeder effect, making it look even more seamless for a modern audience.

The landspeeder effect is a testament to the ingenuity of the original Star Wars special effects team, which had to rely on physical props and in-camera tricks to bring George Lucas's vision to life. This low-tech approach to a high-tech concept is a big part of what makes the original film's practical effects so iconic and beloved.

Rare Photos of the Wright Brothers’ Early Flight Tests

The Wright brothers, Orville (1871–1948) and Wilbur Wright (1867–1912), were American inventors and aviation pioneers who are widely credited with inventing, building, and flying the world’s first successful motorized airplane. On December 17, 1903, in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, they achieved the first controlled, sustained flight of a powered aircraft, with Orville piloting the plane for 12 seconds over 120 feet.

Their success was the result of years of experimentation, engineering skill, and an innovative approach to flight control. Unlike many of their contemporaries, the Wrights focused on how to control an aircraft in flight, leading to their breakthrough with three-axis control—still a fundamental principle in modern aviation.

Beyond their technical achievements, the Wright brothers’ determination and hands-on experimentation laid the foundation for the aviation industry. Their work transformed transportation and helped usher in the modern age of flight. Below is a rare collection of early flight test photos featuring the Wright Brothers in the early 1900s.

Tom Tate, son of Captain Tate's half-brother Daniel Tate, posing with a drum fish in front of 1900 Wright glider

1901 glider being flown as a kite, Wilbur at left side, Orville at right; Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, 1901

Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, 1901

Side view of glider flying as a kite near the ground, Wilbur at left and Orville at right, glider turned forward to right and tipped downward, 1901

Side view of Wilbur gliding in level flight, moving to right near bottom of Big Hill; Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, October 10, 1902

The first flight of the Wright Flyer, December 17, 1903, Orville piloting, Wilbur running at wingtip

The Treadmill Crane, a Human Powered Hoisting and Lowering Device

The treadwheel crane (Latin: magna rota), also known as a walking wheel crane, is one of the most iconic lifting devices from ancient and medieval times. It operated using human power, where a person would walk inside a giant wheel (similar to a hamster wheel) to generate rotational force, lifting heavy loads via a system of pulleys and ropes.

The origin of the treadwheel crane dates back to Ancient Roman times (around the 1st century AD), where it was used in the construction of large structures like temples and aqueducts. Its widespread use re-emerged in medieval Europe, especially between the 12th and 19th centuries.

These cranes were commonly used in harbors, church construction sites, and castles. In major ports like Gdańsk (Poland), Strasbourg (France), and Bruges (Belgium), the treadwheel crane played a key role in loading and unloading ships. Some cranes were even built permanently atop stone towers or large wooden structures.

One or two people would walk inside the wheel, much like climbing stairs. Their movement turned a drum that wound up a rope to lift heavy cargo. Depending on the wheel’s size and human effort, the crane could lift tons of weight.

With the rise of steam engines in the 19th century, treadwheel cranes became obsolete, replaced by more efficient and powerful machinery. However, several of these historic cranes still survive today as monuments and engineering heritage sites.

In 1956, Mercedes-Benz Constructed Its Renowned “Death Curve” Test Track for Evaluating New Vehicles

In 1956, Mercedes-Benz was actively developing and testing vehicles at its Untertürkheim plant in Stuttgart. While the iconic 90-degree banked curve (often called the “death curve”) was largely developed and revealed in its extended form in 1967, the first phase of the test tracks at Untertürkheim was completed and went into operation around the turn of 1957, with the planning application submitted in January 1955 and the board giving the green light in July 1956.

This initial phase in 1956 already included a “skid pad” with concentric circles of different road surfaces (like blue basalt, concrete, slippery asphalt, and cobblestones) and an integrated sprinkler system for wet-surface testing. While it was a significant step forward, engineers soon realized they needed more extensive facilities for high-speed, endurance, and rough-road testing, leading to the later expansions.

Therefore, in 1956, the Mercedes-Benz test track in Stuttgart would have been referred to as the Daimler-Einfahrbahn at the Untertürkheim plant, or simply the test track within the Untertürkheim factory premises.

While much of the original track is no longer in active use, some sections remain. The Untertürkheim site continues to serve as a technical center for Mercedes-Benz vehicle development.

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“Universe 25” Experiment, One of the Most Disturbing Studies in the History of Science by John B. Calhoun

John B. Calhoun was an American ethologist and behavioral researcher who is most famous for his “Universe 25” experiment. Conducted between 1968-1973, the experiment examined the effects of overpopulation on behavior in mice.

Calhoun designed an ideal environment for rats, called “mouse utopia,” with abundant food, water and space, in order to study the social dynamics of a growing population.

Initially, the colony prospered, but after 317 days, population growth began to stagnate. Upon reaching 600 mice, serious social problems arose: hierarchies were established, the strongest individuals began to attack others, and aggressive and maladaptive behaviors emerged, such as violence between females and a lack of reproductive interest in males. As passive, non-reproductive (beautiful mice) males dominated, the birth rate plummeted, juvenile mortality reached 100%, and the colony collapsed into cannibalism and homosexuality.

The experiment was repeated 25 times, each time with similar results, and has been used to model the study of social collapse and urban sociology.

Calhoun saw the fate of the population of mice as a metaphor for the potential fate of man. He characterized the social breakdown as a “second death.” His study has been cited by writers such as Bill Perkins as a warning of the dangers of living in an “increasingly crowded and impersonal world.” Others took different lessons; medical historian Edmund Ramsden has hypothesized that the mouse society fell from excessive social interaction, rather than density per se.

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Nikola Tesla’s Foot on an X-ray Image Taken by Himself on a Device of His Own Design, 1896

In 1896, Nikola Tesla used a machine of his own design to capture an X-ray image of his foot. He called this early X-ray photograph a “shadowgraph,” and it clearly showed his foot inside a shoe.

Nikola Tesla, with over 300 patents to his name, is best known for his groundbreaking work in electricity and radio. He may have been the first to discover X-rays, but a devastating fire in 1895 destroyed much of his laboratory, setting back his research.

Shortly after, German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen published his findings on X-rays. Rather than feeling discouraged, Tesla congratulated Röntgen and even sent him some of his own X-ray images, which Röntgen praised. Undeterred, Tesla continued his experiments, developing high-energy vacuum tubes powered by his Tesla coil. These allowed him to produce highly detailed X-ray images, which he called “shadowgraphs.” He even captured images of his own body, including his hand and foot.

Despite his remarkable contributions, Tesla struggled with financial difficulties and personal setbacks later in life. He spent his final years in solitude and passed away at the age of 86.

The First Russian Submarine Was Built in 1721 and Tested in the Presence of Russian Emperor Peter the Great

The idea to build a “stealth vessel” capable of sailing underwater and “knocking a warship out from below” belonged to Yefim Nikonov, a simple carpenter who worked in a shipyard in the 18th century. He had no engineering background and was illiterate. But that did not stop him from being a master shipbuilder.

Nikonov sent numerous technical specifications (written down by others) to Peter the Great for a submarine that would “lie quietly under the waves then destroy warships, at least ten or twenty, with a projectile.” If it failed, he said, he was ready to answer with his head.

In 1719, the Tsar finally paid attention to the project and invited Nikonov to discuss the idea in person. Although the concept was by no means new (Dutch engineer Cornelius Drebbel had tested the world’s first submarine in the Thames in London back in 1620), Peter became transfixed by it. He appointed Yefim as his “master of stealth vessels” and gave him a workshop in St Petersburg and the right to choose his assistants.

Thirteen months later, a small prototype was tested in the Neva. Halfway across the river, the vessel submerged, then surfaced on the other side. The second dive did not go so smoothly, and the vessel failed to rise. The tsar, looking on, personally took part in the operation to raise the ship using ropes. Despite the failure, he ordered the construction of a full-fledged model.

Nikonov’s “stealth vessel” was completed in 1724. When entering it in the books, the clerk miswrote one letter, writing “Morel” instead of “Model”. The name stuck.

The first Russian submarine was shaped like a large wooden barrel six meters long, two meters high. It was fastened together with iron hoops and wrapped in leather.

Ten tin plates perforated with tiny holes were built into the body. Through them, outboard water flowed into leather bags, causing the vessel to submerge. On surfacing, the water was discharged overboard using a copper piston pump. The five-crewed submarine was powered by oars.

Morel’s main weapon was to be flamethrowers (“fiery copper pipes”). In addition, a diver would climb out and, using special tools, damage the hull of the enemy ship. Nikonov even designed a “diving suit” for this new profession.

In the spring of 1724, the “stealth vessel” was again tested in the Neva, once more in the presence of Peter the Great and naval officers. It successfully sank to a depth of 3-4 meters, but then scraped the ground with its keel.

The hermetically sealed Morel was ripped open, and the crew had to be urgently rescued. But despite this second failure, Peter refused to condemn either the vessel or its inventor, ordering that he “not be blamed for this discomfiture.”

Monument to the “stealth vessel” tests in Sestroretsk, St. Petersburg.

However, the Tsar’s death soon afterwards put paid to the ambitious project. The now patronless Nikonov had far less money, manpower and materials to play with.

The last “stealth vessel” tests took place in 1727. After another unsuccessful attempt, Nikonov was demoted from the rank of master shipbuilder to simple “admiralty worker” and sent from the capital to remote Astrakhan. As a result, Russia had to wait nearly two more centuries before acquiring its first submarine fleet.

(This article was published on Russia Beyond)

The Lost Photographs of Andrée’s Arctic Balloon Expeditionof 1897

In 1897, three Swedish explorers—Salomon August Andrée, Nils Strindberg, and Knut Frænkel—embarked on a daring mission to become the first people to reach the North Pole by hydrogen balloon. Their ambitious journey, fueled by the spirit of discovery and the optimism of the age, ended in tragedy when their balloon, the Örnen (Eagle), crashed on the Arctic ice just 65 hours after takeoff.

Stranded in one of the most inhospitable environments on Earth, the trio faced unimaginable challenges as they struggled to survive. For weeks, the men fought against the brutal Arctic conditions, relying on their ingenuity and resilience. 

They hunted and ate polar bears to sustain themselves, a testament to their determination to survive against all odds. Despite their efforts, the harsh environment ultimately claimed their lives.

“Paradise! Large even ice floes with pools of sweet drinking water and here and there a tender-fleshed young polar bear!” — Andrée, as noted in his diary

Their camp, along with their bodies, journals, and a camera containing undeveloped photographs, remained frozen in time, preserved by the icy landscape for over three decades.

In 1930, a Norwegian expedition stumbled upon the remains of the ill-fated journey. The discovery of their camp provided a haunting glimpse into their final days. The journals and photographs, once developed, revealed the explorers’ struggles, hopes, and the camaraderie they shared even in the face of certain death.

These artifacts offered a poignant narrative of human ambition and the relentless pursuit of the unknown. The story of Andrée, Strindberg, and Frænkel is a powerful reminder of the courage it takes to push the boundaries of human exploration. Their journey, though tragic, embodies the indomitable spirit of adventure and the willingness to risk everything for the sake of discovery.

As the explorer Ernest Shackleton once said, “It is in our nature to explore, to reach out into the unknown. The only true failure would be not to explore at all.”

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30 Vintage Photos of People With Televisions From the 1950s

In the 1950s, owning a television was a symbol of affluence and modernity. Televisions were bulky, black-and-white sets with small screens, often housed in wooden cabinets. They provided a new form of entertainment, with popular shows like I Love Lucy and The Ed Sullivan Show bringing families together to watch TV as a shared experience.

This era also marked the rise of television networks like NBC and CBS, shaping national culture and public opinion. Commercials became a major feature, while television also influenced the “TV generation” of children growing up with it.

Despite being a luxury for many, television quickly became an essential part of daily life, transforming both entertainment and social dynamics. Here is a collection of vintage photos showcasing people with televisions from the 1950s.

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A World War II US Soldier Posing With Captured Killinger and Freund Motorcycle, 1945

This odd looking motorcycle was captured by the US Army at a German military base in the spring of 1945. At first glance, it might remind you of an Indian Chief with it’s full skirted fenders, but take a closer look and you’ll see that it is very different kind of machine.

The Killinger and Freund Motorcycle was an attempt in 1935 by a group of five German engineers from Munich to design a more streamlined and modified version of the German Megola front-wheel drive motorcycle. The work took three years to complete but the result was impressive. The engine displacement stayed the same as the Megola at 600 cc but was much lighter and more simplified than a standard 100 cc motorcycle of the time.

The motorcycle featured a three-cylinder two-stroke engine built right into the front wheel, transmission and clutch, with more comfortable front and rear suspension. Streamlining was important as aerodynamics was the first priority of the team who wanted all the moving parts covered, dirt and mud protection, and an elegant style. Other priorities were that the motorcycle be multi-cylinder and possess front- wheel-drive. Their design met with success.

The first impressions of the new motorcycle was of a streamlined racing machine with rounded covers for the front and rear wheels, aerodynamically improved fork, frame, and fuel tank all built on a tubular framework covered in sheet metal.

The rear suspension was linked to the lower end of the tubular frame and featured flexible rubber and metal elements that did not require servicing. Steering was much like an ordinary motorcycle but with more vertical telescopic elements than usual, which translated into a wheelbase that wouldn’t change much whenever the front fork dived.

The new front-wheel-drive was a vast improvement over the old Megola design. The weight of the engine was lower. The front wheel with integrated engine had a combined weight of 50 kg (110 lb). Additionally, a custom carburetor without a float needle didn’t have the problems caused by vibration. And finally, the light-weight battery ignition allowed trouble-free engine starts and helped to keep the engine weight low. The distributor and the points were located in the hub. The technicians originally intended to build a dynastarter. These improvements would have been impossible to add to the old Megola design.

The three cylinder two-stroke engine used a Drehschieber (“rotary valve,” a turning disk, with intake holes for exact timing of the fuel-air mixture intake). The fuel-air mixture was sucked in by the vacuum in the three crankshaft housings as usual. The Drehschieber does the intake timing for all three cylinders. The engine was not a radial engine associated with aircraft and there was no need for a flywheel. All three cranks worked on one common gear. This arrangement and the recoil of the pistons in the turning direction secured a perfect balance of the moving parts. The cylinders were made of KS (Kolbenschmidt) iron cylinder walls and were embedded in the Silumin alloy engine housing. The only things that could be visibly identified as engine parts were the alloy cylinder heads with multiple cooling fins and the exhaust pipes located between the spokes of the cast alloy front wheel. These flat spokes were designed to serve as a functional cooling fan.

The two-speed transmission was built as a differential transmission and used slope-meshed gears. The clutch was made of conventional clutch disks. The clutch (with the springs at the outer circle) was located in front of the transmission. The transmission was actuated by foot-operated steel cables. All parts of the engine allowed easy access for service work. After the removal of the engine – only two bolts and some wiring had to be removed – all important parts were within reach.

The tire could also be removed easily. You had to unlock a safety mechanism and then remove the tire completely with the split rim (very similar to the split rim developed by BMW). The front brake was installed in the hub. The rear suspension also had telescopic oil-filled shock absorbers. The gasoline flowed down through flexible hoses. A panel in the frame allowed easy access to the seat springs to adjust the hardness of the seat's suspension.

The Killinger and Freund Motorrad (motorcycle) was test-driven after the engine was tested on a test stand. Its total weight was 135 kg (297 lb). This design was intended for civilian production but the start of World War II cancelled those plans.