Incredible Fabric Womb Mannequin Designed by Angelique Marguerite Le Boursier du Coudray in the 18th Century

In the 18th century, childbirth remained a harrowing and often deadly experience. Across Europe, countless women and infants died due to the absence of medical knowledge and skilled care. Against this backdrop, Angélique Marguerite Le Boursier du Coudray emerged as a bold and transformative figure.

Born in 1712, she became one of France’s most respected midwives at a time when few women had access to formal education. But rather than limit her work to private practice, du Coudray made it her mission to train others, aiming to bring safe childbirth techniques to the most underserved corners of the country.

With the support of King Louis XV in 1759, du Coudray embarked on a nationwide campaign to educate rural midwives and surgeons. For over two decades, she traveled from village to village, teaching practical childbirth skills through demonstrations and lectures. Most revolutionary of all was her invention of a life-sized birthing mannequin, crafted from fabric and leather, which allowed students to practice procedures in a realistic yet safe setting. This innovation marked one of the earliest uses of simulation in medical training and dramatically improved the quality of maternal care.

Her influence was both immediate and lasting. Du Coudray’s teachings helped reduce maternal and infant deaths, and her 1773 publication, Abrégé de l’Art des Accouchements, became a foundational text for generations of midwives. Though largely forgotten in popular history, she stands as a pioneer in medical education, a champion of women’s health, and a figure who reshaped childbirth practices with compassion, intellect, and ingenuity.

Angélique Marguerite Le Boursier du Coudray

Two Men Holding Up a Pair of Oversized Trousers of Daniel Lambert, the Heaviest Man in England

Daniel Lambert (1770–1809) was an English man renowned in Georgian England for his extraordinary size, intelligence, and dignified character. Despite his immense weight, he was a respected jailer and a keen sportsman. Here’s an image of two men holding up a pair of oversized trousers that belonged to Lambert, ca. 1956:

Daniel Lambert was born in Leicester, England on March 13, 1770. In his youth, he was a keen sportsman, enjoying activities like swimming, fishing, shooting, and horse racing. He was considered an expert in breeding sporting animals, particularly dogs and fighting cocks. He initially worked for four years as an apprentice at an engraving and die casting works in Birmingham. Around 1788, he returned to Leicester and succeeded his father as the keeper of Leicester’s gaol (prison). He was known for his strength and once reportedly fought a bear in the streets of Leicester.

He began to gain weight when he took up the more sedentary job as gaol keeper. By the time of his death, he weighed 52 stone 11 pounds (739 lb; 335 kg). He was known to have disliked changing his clothes and would wear the same ones, even if they were wet, though he claimed no ill effects.

Daniel Lambert’s clothes display at the Newarke Houses Museum in Leicester.

In 1806, his weight prevented him from working, and he was forced by poverty to put himself on exhibition to raise money, charging spectators to meet him. He moved to London and took up residence in Piccadilly. Visitors were impressed by his intelligence and personality, and it became highly fashionable to visit him.

After earning sufficient wealth, he returned to Leicester but continued to make short fundraising tours. He died suddenly in Stamford, Lincolnshire on June 21, 1809, at the age of 39. Due to his immense size, a window and part of a wall at the inn had to be dismantled to remove his body for burial. His coffin was enormous, requiring 112 to 156 square feet of wood, and it took “upwards of twenty men” to lower it into the grave.

Daniel Lambert became a celebrated icon in Leicester and his name became synonymous with immensity. His memory is preserved in various pubs named after him, and many of his personal belongings, including his large armchair and clothing, are on permanent display at the Newarke Houses Museum in Leicester. A life-size model can also be seen at the Stamford Town Hall.

Locket of Hair Belonging to Mary Tudor, Queen of France

Mary Tudor, Queen of France (1496–1533) — the younger sister of King Henry VIII — was famous in her lifetime for her beauty, and especially for her remarkable hair. Contemporary accounts and historical analysis consistently describe her hair as a beautiful red-gold or golden hair tinged with red, often referred to as the “Tudor trademark.” It is sometimes described as strawberry blonde or light red.

When her tomb was opened in 1784, a lock of her hair was preserved. Reports on the color of the preserved hair varied between “red or gold.” At the time her coffin was opened, she reportedly had two foot-long tresses of hair.

It is important to note that while contemporary descriptions and physical evidence (like the preserved lock of hair) lean toward a reddish-gold color, the hair color in her portraits can sometimes appear darker (even brown) due to the darkening of pigments over time or variations in the original copies.

The Story of the Dahomey Amazons, Benin’s Fearless Female Warriors From Between the 17th and 19th Centuries

The Dahomey Amazons, known in their native Fon language as Mino (“Our Mothers”) or Agoji, were an all-female military regiment that served the Kingdom of Dahomey (in present-day Benin, West Africa) from the 17th century until the late 19th century. They are a unique and celebrated part of world history, recognized for their ferocity, discipline, and military prowess. They were named Amazons by Western Europeans who encountered them, due to the story of the female warriors of Amazons in Greek mythology.

The exact origin of the Dahomey Amazons is debated, with various oral traditions and historical accounts offering different theories. Some scholars suggest the group began in the 17th century during the reign of King Houegbadja (1645-1685), possibly as a corps of elephant huntresses known as Gbeto. Another theory credits King Agaja’s older sister and predecessor, Queen Hangbe (1716-1718), with forming an all-female bodyguard unit. Regardless of the precise origin, the unit became a formal and significant part of the Dahomey army under the rule of King Ghezo (1818-1858).

During the reign of King Ghezo, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic, and he formalized the female regiment, transforming it from a ceremonial group into a formidable military force. He significantly increased the army’s budget and placed great importance on the women’s unit. At their peak in the mid-19th century, the Amazons numbered between 1,000 and 6,000 women, comprising roughly one-third of the kingdom’s entire army.

Their service was central to the kingdom's success. The Dahomey Amazons fought with distinction in many of the kingdom's conflicts with neighboring states, expanding its territory and power. They were heavily involved in the Atlantic slave trade, leading raids on other villages to capture people who were then sold to European traders in exchange for weaponry. This economic activity was crucial to the kingdom's wealth and military strength.

Recruitment for the Mino came from various sources. Some women were volunteers, while others were conscripted from foreign captives or involuntarily enrolled by their husbands or fathers who complained to the king about their behavior. The women were often recruited from a young age, with some as young as eight.

Once enrolled, the Mino underwent rigorous physical training that emphasized discipline, survival skills, and indifference to pain and death. They were trained to use a variety of weapons, including muskets, bows, and sharp blades. As part of their training, they would perform exercises like storming defenses made of acacia thorns and executing prisoners.

The Dahomey Amazons held a privileged and respected status within the kingdom. They were considered ahosi (“king’s wives”) and lived in the royal palace. While they were legally married to the king, they were not allowed to have children or be part of married life, and many were virgins. Their status was so high that when they appeared in public, a servant would walk ahead of them, ringing a bell to alert men to move away and avert their eyes.

The Dahomey Amazons’ legacy of military success came to an end in the late 19th century with the rise of European colonialism. They fiercely resisted the French invasion of Dahomey during the First and Second Franco-Dahomean Wars in 1890 and 1892.

Despite their bravery and ferocity, they were ultimately outmatched by the superior weaponry and tactics of the French forces, who were armed with machine guns and bayonets. The bulk of the Amazon corps was tragically wiped out in hand-to-hand combat during the final battles. The French conquest was completed in 1894, and the Kingdom of Dahomey became a French protectorate. The Amazon regiment was officially disbanded.

Oral traditions and historical accounts state that some surviving Amazons continued to resist by secretly assassinating French officers. The last known surviving Dahomey Amazon, a woman named Nawi who claimed to have fought the French, was interviewed by a historian in 1978. She died in 1979, aged over 100.

The Dahomey Amazons have had a lasting impact, inspiring fictional portrayals such as the Dora Milaje in Marvel’s Black Panther and the film The Woman King. Their history stands as a testament to the unique roles and power that women could achieve in pre-colonial African societies.

The First Russian Submarine Was Built in 1721 and Tested in the Presence of Russian Emperor Peter the Great

The idea to build a “stealth vessel” capable of sailing underwater and “knocking a warship out from below” belonged to Yefim Nikonov, a simple carpenter who worked in a shipyard in the 18th century. He had no engineering background and was illiterate. But that did not stop him from being a master shipbuilder.

Nikonov sent numerous technical specifications (written down by others) to Peter the Great for a submarine that would “lie quietly under the waves then destroy warships, at least ten or twenty, with a projectile.” If it failed, he said, he was ready to answer with his head.

In 1719, the Tsar finally paid attention to the project and invited Nikonov to discuss the idea in person. Although the concept was by no means new (Dutch engineer Cornelius Drebbel had tested the world’s first submarine in the Thames in London back in 1620), Peter became transfixed by it. He appointed Yefim as his “master of stealth vessels” and gave him a workshop in St Petersburg and the right to choose his assistants.

Thirteen months later, a small prototype was tested in the Neva. Halfway across the river, the vessel submerged, then surfaced on the other side. The second dive did not go so smoothly, and the vessel failed to rise. The tsar, looking on, personally took part in the operation to raise the ship using ropes. Despite the failure, he ordered the construction of a full-fledged model.

Nikonov’s “stealth vessel” was completed in 1724. When entering it in the books, the clerk miswrote one letter, writing “Morel” instead of “Model”. The name stuck.

The first Russian submarine was shaped like a large wooden barrel six meters long, two meters high. It was fastened together with iron hoops and wrapped in leather.

Ten tin plates perforated with tiny holes were built into the body. Through them, outboard water flowed into leather bags, causing the vessel to submerge. On surfacing, the water was discharged overboard using a copper piston pump. The five-crewed submarine was powered by oars.

Morel’s main weapon was to be flamethrowers (“fiery copper pipes”). In addition, a diver would climb out and, using special tools, damage the hull of the enemy ship. Nikonov even designed a “diving suit” for this new profession.

In the spring of 1724, the “stealth vessel” was again tested in the Neva, once more in the presence of Peter the Great and naval officers. It successfully sank to a depth of 3-4 meters, but then scraped the ground with its keel.

The hermetically sealed Morel was ripped open, and the crew had to be urgently rescued. But despite this second failure, Peter refused to condemn either the vessel or its inventor, ordering that he “not be blamed for this discomfiture.”

Monument to the “stealth vessel” tests in Sestroretsk, St. Petersburg.

However, the Tsar’s death soon afterwards put paid to the ambitious project. The now patronless Nikonov had far less money, manpower and materials to play with.

The last “stealth vessel” tests took place in 1727. After another unsuccessful attempt, Nikonov was demoted from the rank of master shipbuilder to simple “admiralty worker” and sent from the capital to remote Astrakhan. As a result, Russia had to wait nearly two more centuries before acquiring its first submarine fleet.

(This article was published on Russia Beyond)

Meme or 18th Century Painting? The Unorthodox Self-Portraits of Joseph Ducreux

Joseph Ducreux (1735–1802) was a French artist known for his expressive and unconventional self-portraits. Unlike many portraitists of his time, who adhered to strict formal conventions, Ducreux infused his works with humor, exaggerated expressions, and an almost modern sense of personality.

Born in Nancy, Ducreux may have trained with his father, who was also a painter. When Ducreux went to Paris in 1760, he trained as the only student of the pastelist Maurice Quentin de La Tour, who specialized in portraiture. Jean-Baptiste Greuze was an important influence on Ducreux’s oil technique.

In 1769, Ducreux was sent to Vienna in order to paint a miniature of Marie Antoinette before she left the city in 1770 and married Louis XVI of France. Ducreux was made a baron and premier peintre de la reine (First Painter to the Queen) in rewards for his services. Ducreux was given this appointment by Marie-Antoinette even though he was not a member of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, which had been founded in 1648.

At the outbreak of the French Revolution, Ducreux traveled to London. There he drew the last portrait ever made of Louis XVI before the king’s execution.

Ducreux specialized in portrait painting. He completed his early portraits in pastel, including those of connoisseurs Pierre-Jean Mariette, the Comte de Caylus and Ange-Laurent de la Live de July. These works may have been copies after De La Tour. Although Ducreux cataloged his works in list form from 1760 onward, he rarely signed his paintings. Thus, many of his works remain erroneously attributed to other artists.

Other portraits by Ducreux include those of Pierre Choderlos de Laclos and Maria Theresa of Austria, as well as those mentioned above of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. Ducreux also made several well-known self-portraits in the 1780s and 1790s, including one in 1783 in which he painted himself in the middle of a large yawn. In another, Portrait de l'artiste sous les traits d'un moqueur (c. 1793, Louvre), the artist guffaws and points at the viewer.

With these self-portraits Ducreux attempted to break free from the constraints of traditional portraiture. His interest in physiognomy—the belief that a person's outer appearance, especially the shape and lines of their face, could reveal their inner character—influenced him in creating his warm and individualistic works. For example, his portrait Le Discret (c. 1790) depicts a man with a timorous facial expression requesting silence by pressing his finger against his mouth, gesturing by which he appears to be demanding discretion or prudence.

Through unusual body language and physical appearances, these portraits parallel the vivacious tronies of Dutch Golden Age painting and the “character heads” of contemporary Austrian sculptor Franz Xaver Messerschmidt (1736–1783), some of whose busts were self-portraits with extreme expressions.

30 Amazing Photos of a Young Phil Lesh, Bassist of the Grateful Dead, in the 1960s and 1970s

Phil Lesh, bassist and founding member of iconic rock band Grateful Dead, has died. He was 84. The news was announced on Lesh’s verified Instagram on Friday, which said he died “peacefully” on Friday morning.

“He was surrounded by his family and full of love. Phil brought immense joy to everyone around him and leaves behind a legacy of music and love,” the announcement read. “We request that you respect the Lesh family’s privacy at this time.”

Born on March 15, 1940, in Berkeley, California, Lesh started his musical journey as a classical violinist and then studied trumpet at the University of California, Berkeley, and later at the San Francisco State College. However, he switched to bass when he joined the Grateful Dead in 1965, despite having no experience with the instrument.

Lesh’s background in classical and avant-garde music heavily influenced his unique approach to bass playing. Instead of following traditional bass lines, he played melodically, treating the bass as an instrument that could weave intricate lines rather than simply providing rhythm. His improvisational style became a core element of the Dead’s signature sound, especially in their live performances.

Phil Lesh remained with the Grateful Dead until the band’s final tour in 1995, following the death of lead guitarist Jerry Garcia. Since then, Lesh has continued to perform and record music, leading his own band, Phil Lesh and Friends, which explores both Grateful Dead classics and new material. He has also collaborated with numerous musicians across genres, contributing to the legacy of improvisational rock.

Lesh operated a music venue called Terrapin Crossroads. From 2009 to 2014, he performed in Furthur alongside former Grateful Dead bandmate Bob Weir. He scaled back his touring regimen in 2014 but continued to perform with the Lesh family band, Phil, Cory, Heidi, and Joseph Lesh through early 2024. Below is a collection of 30 photos of a young Phil Lesh in the 1960s and 1970s:

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1700s Ladies: The Oldest Generation of Women to Be Photographed

Daguerreotype was the first publicly available photographic process; it was widely used during the 1840s and 1850s. The daguerreotype produced a positive image on a silver surface. It was invented by Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre in 1835 and became publicly available in 1839.

This led to the first photographic portrait studio opening in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1842, which brought portraiture into widespread use across America and Europe. The daguerreotypists were soon joined by photographers who used calotypes (paper negatives) to create portraits of their customers at studios or at home.

This practice continued until around 1850, when ambrotypes were introduced as an alternative to wet collodion paper negatives (though they had been around since 1854).

Here below is a set of amazing photos from Jesse Cress that shows studio portraits of women who were born from the 1700s.

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Smallpox Illustration, Japanese Manuscript, ca. 1720

Watercolor illustration from a Japanese work on smallpox entitled Toshin seiyo [The essentials of smallpox] consisting of a manuscript in two volumes. It contains numerous colored illustrations of different symptoms of smallpox, which were executed on separate sheets of paper: they were then cut out and pasted into place.

According to the beginning of book two, the author was Kanda Gensen (c.1670–1746) and the text was edited and supplemented by one Enokimoto Gensho, whose dates are unknown and about whom all that is known is that he practiced medicine. Kanda was a doctor who is known for his illustrated explanatory works on natural science and materia medica.

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20 Amazing Military Equipments of General Washington

George Washington may be best known as the nation’s first President, but he earned the trust and admiration of his country through his military service in the Revolutionary War.

Presented here is a small selection of the most notable weapons, accoutrements, and gear that he used over the course of his long and distinguished career — from a colonial militia commander in the 1750s all the way to commander in chief of the American army during the Quasi-War with France in 1798-1799.

1. Braddock Sword

Family history maintains George Washington wore this sword while an aide to Major General Edward Braddock during the French and Indian War. With the primary objective of driving the French out of the Ohio country, the campaign was a military disaster for the British, culminating in Braddock’s defeat at the Battle of Monongahela on July 9, 1755, and his death four days later. Washington never forgot this humiliating and demoralizing rout at the hands of a smaller combined French and Indian force, and it proved to be a turning point in his career.

2. Military Uniform, ca. 1789

Throughout his life, Washington believed that in order to command effectively, an officer must convey character and leadership through appearance as well as action. 

None of Washington’s uniforms from the Revolutionary War are known to survive, but this blue and buff wool coat is believed to be part of a suit of regimentals made for President Washington. In his newly-defined role as President, Washington was also commander in chief of the nation’s military forces. In 1794, Washington took the field, becoming the first and only president to do so, in the short campaign to put down the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania. Washington also occasionally wore his military uniform when sitting for portraits during this period.

3. Flintlock Pistols

Washington’s correspondence includes dozens of references to pistols purchased, lost, captured, and received as gifts. This brace of pistols, made in London ca. 1780, may have been captured during the Revolution or acquired after the War.

4. Braddock Pistol

Washington’s highly prized this English pistol, one of a pair originally given to him by General Braddock in 1755.

5. Spyglass

Washington depended on spyglasses or telescopes to monitor British and American troop movements during the Revolution. In his will, Washington identified this handsome, three-draw, mahogany and brass spyglass as one “which constituted part of my equipage during the late War.”

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George Washington’s Military Trunk Bed Used During the Revolutionary War, 1775

George Washington carried folding beds, tents, eating utensils, and other equipment to use while encamped on the field with his troops during the Revolutionary War. Washington likely used this bed when he traveled from his Newburgh, New York, headquarters in July 1783 –– as the war was winding down –– to tour upstate New York and the military installations located there.

Unlike the fancy field bedstead, this bed is more similar to a modern camping cot. Made with metal legs, the lid of the trunk was used as a headboard. This bed was highly transportable, all fitting into a trunk after use.

(via The Henry Ford)

The Mechanical Turk: How an 18th Century Fake Chess-Playing Machine That Fooled the World

Imagine a machine that could beat any human chess player. That sounds very ordinary. But what if that happened in the eighteenth century long before computers were around?

A reconstruction of the Turk.

The Mechanical Turk, also known as the Turk, was a fraudulent chess-playing machine constructed in 1770, which appeared to be able to play a strong game of chess against a human opponent. For 84 years, it was exhibited on tours by various owners as an automaton. The machine survived and continued giving occasional exhibitions until 1854, when a fire swept through the museum where it was kept, destroying the machine. Afterwards, articles were published by a son of the machine’s owner revealing its secrets to the public: that it was an elaborate hoax, suspected by some, but never proven in public while it still existed.

Constructed and unveiled in 1770 by Wolfgang von Kempelen (1734–1804) to impress Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, the mechanism appeared to be able to play a strong game of chess against a human opponent, as well as perform the knight’s tour, a puzzle that requires the player to move a knight to occupy every square of a chessboard exactly once.

The Turk was in fact a mechanical illusion that allowed a human chess master hiding inside to operate the machine. With a skilled operator, the Turk won most of the games played during its demonstrations around Europe and the Americas for nearly 84 years, playing and defeating many challengers including statesmen such as Napoleon Bonaparte and Benjamin Franklin. The device was later purchased in 1804 and exhibited by Johann Nepomuk Mälzel. The chessmasters who secretly operated it included Johann Allgaier, Boncourt, Aaron Alexandre, William Lewis, Jacques Mouret, and William Schlumberger, but the operators within the mechanism during Kempelen’s original tour remain unknown.

A cross-section of the Turk from Racknitz, showing how he thought the operator sat inside as he played his opponent. Racknitz was wrong both about the position of the operator and the dimensions of the automaton.

Many drawings tried to depict the workings of the Turk.

An attempt to explain how a chess master could operate the Turk from its interior.

The Automaton Chess-player, known in modern times as the Turk, consisted of a life-sized model of a human head and torso, with a black beard and grey eyes, and dressed in Ottoman robes and a turban. Its left arm held a long Ottoman smoking pipe while at rest, while its right lay on the top of a large cabinet that measured about 3.5 feet (110 cm) long, 2 feet (61 cm) wide, and 2.5 feet (76 cm) high. Placed on the top of the cabinet was a chessboard, which measured 18 inches (460 mm) on each side. The front of the cabinet consisted of three doors, an opening, and a drawer, which could be opened to reveal a red and white ivory chess set.

The interior of the machine was very complicated and designed to mislead those who observed it. When opened on the left, the front doors of the cabinet exposed a number of gears and cogs similar to clockwork. The section was designed so that if the back doors of the cabinet were open at the same time one could see through the machine. The other side of the cabinet did not house machinery; instead it contained a red cushion and some removable parts, as well as brass structures. This area was also designed to provide a clear line of vision through the machine. Underneath the robes of the Ottoman model, two other doors were hidden. These also exposed clockwork machinery and provided a similarly unobstructed view through the machine. The design allowed the presenter of the machine to open every available door to the public, to maintain the illusion.

Neither the clockwork visible to the left side of the machine nor the drawer that housed the chess set extended fully to the rear of the cabinet; they instead went only one third of the way. A sliding seat was also installed, allowing the operator inside to slide from place to place and thus evade observation as the presenter opened various doors. The sliding of the seat caused dummy machinery to slide into its place to further conceal the person inside the cabinet.

The chessboard on the top of the cabinet was thin enough to allow for a magnetic linkage. Each piece in the chess set had a small, strong magnet attached to its base, and when they were placed on the board the pieces would attract a magnet attached to a string under their specific places on the board. This allowed the operator inside the machine to see which pieces moved where on the chess board. The bottom of the chessboard had corresponding numbers, 1–64, allowing the operator to see which places on the board were affected by a player’s move. The internal magnets were positioned in a way that outside magnetic forces did not influence them, and Kempelen would often allow a large magnet to sit at the side of the board in an attempt to show that the machine was not influenced by magnetism.

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